Anita Bryant’s

Anita Jane Bryant was a singer and a political activist. She scored four top 40 hits in the United States in the late 1950's and early 1960's. A devout christain born and raised in Oklahoma. The homosexual activist succeeded in destroying Bryants career. She was anti homosexual because she was very religions and she was trying to protect all of them from going to hell.

That Girl - the sitcom

"That Girl" was a sitcom in the late 60s to early 70s on ABC which featured a woman named Ann Marie, played by Marlo Thomas. The significance of "That Girl" was that it featured a single woman not reliant on her parents or another partner. This was the first TV show of its kind in which a strong female woman was not portrayed as being dependent on someone else. It gave a certain power to women's cause in their fight for equal rights and equal respect. It is often considered as a forerunner for the changing political climate between men and women that occured so drastically in the 70's. The show actually ended by getting Ann Marie engaged to a man, but purposely finished before they ever got married, to send a message that marriage did not need to be the ultimate goal for young, impressionable girls.
Watch the opening title scene here!

The SR-71 Blackbird

15 January, 1972. Four Soviet MiG-25 interceptors race skywards, intercepting a lone American aircraft violating their airspace. These MiGs are the world's premier interceptors, easily capable of reaching 2.8 times the speed of sound and launching four massive long-ranged R-40 missiles. Their radar sets so powerful they burn through any jamming signals sent out by enemy aircraft. But the plane they are trying to intercept flies too high and too fast. Missiles are launched. A green flash is seen high in the sky as the mysterious plane lights its afterburner and outruns the missiles. The lone aircraft continues on it mission through Soviet airspace, completely untouchable.

Beginnings

The SR-71 was born out of a need for a successor to the venerable Lockheed U-2 spy-plane. At the time of its introduction the U-2 was revolutionary, flying above any and all air defense, but now, in 1958, Soviet air defense had gotten exponentially better. The U-2 was now a slow sitting duck. The CIA contacted the builders of the U-2, Lockheed, to design a revolutionary undetectable spy plane. The project was given the (really cool) codename Archangel. The program proceeded slowly until the downing of Gary Powers' U-2 over the USSR highlighted the need for a better plane. On April 25, 1962, the A-12 flew for the first time at Groom Lake (Area 51), the top-secret testing grounds for confidential aircraft.

The single-seat design was modified for the Air Force to become the SR-71 Blackbird (SR for "strategic reconnaissance") under the cover story that it was a new interceptor (called the YF-12). Quick fact: a few YF-12's were built, with missile bays replacing the spy equipment, but none were ever deployed in combat patrols.

Design

Speed was first and foremost in the development of the Blackbird, something that even a quick glace can show. It's two massive Pratt & Whitney J58 turboramjets could switch from a normal jet engine to a ramjet at high speeds, and the pointy inlet cones could move 26 inches forwards and backwards for optimal something something supersonic something shock-wave compression something (They would move to reflect the shockwave from the tip of the spike to the edge of the intake, passively slowing the air down while keeping the drag very low).

Yeah, I don't know either

The aircraft was also designed to be low-observable and partially stealth. This can be seen from the rounding of the fuselage and the inward cant of the tail-fins. The dark-blue, almost black paint was applied to make the plane blend into the black sky at the edge of space. Speed had a disadvantage: at mach (a measure of speed; mach 1 is the speed of sound) 3.2, the skin of the plane heated up to 500 Celsius. Normal aviation fuel would explode in the tanks at this temperature. Instead of redesigning the airframe, a new low-volatility fuel blend was created, JP-7. It acted as a heat-sink for internal components, as fuel for the thirsty J58's, and was the hydraulic fluid for the engine hydraulics. The pilots of the SR-71 were equipped with a pressure suit to keep them alive in case of an emergency ejection.

Flying at the edge of space

The heat mentioned above added another problem to the design. Any normal structural metal would melt at that temperature. Titanium was the only metal light and structural enough to be used. The only issue was that the US had hardly any titanium. You know who had titanium though? The Soviet Union. So through third-world countries and other shady means the US bought/stole enough titanium to make 32 planes from the Soviets.

The production floor at Lockheed's Skunk Works

Performance

Top speed at altitude: Mach 3.3 (2000 mph / 3200 kph)

Service altitude: 80,000 feet Above Sea Level
Maximum altitude: 85,000 feet ASL

Range: 2900 miles for most missions

Records

The SR-71 set lots of records (some which still stand today) due to its crazy performance.

Absolute Altitude: 85,069 feet

Absolute Speed: 2,193.2 mph

New York to London: 1 hour, 54 minutes, 56.4 seconds (A 747 takes about 6 hours 57 minutes for the same route)

Its safety record was another thing altogether. Although none were ever shot down, 12 out of the 32 built were lost in accidents.

One notable accident occurred when the automatic control system for the inlet spikes failed on a training flight over the Southwestern US, causing the engine to 'unstart' (basically stop) because the shockwaves were going into it instead of being bounced away by the spike. This was accompanied by a large bang, and the aircraft pitching up and turning sharply to the right. In the words of pilot Bill Weaver, "I instantly knew we were in for a wild ride." The aircraft lost control at Mach 3.18 (2039 mph) and an altitude of 78,000 feet. The combination of extreme speed and a sharp turn created huge g-forces, and only 3 seconds after the unstart the pilot blacked out. "The SR-71 then literally disintegrated around us." He awoke at about 20,000 feet, free falling."I realized that this was no dream; it had really happened. That also was disturbing, because I could not have survived what just happened." He landed on a desert plateau and was quickly picked up by a rancher. A later investigation found that the eject sequence was never activated. Both the pilot, Bill Weaver and the reconnaissance and navigation specialist Jim Zwayer were ripped from the aircraft from the high-g's. Weaver's harness was still attached to his pressure suit, the high-strength nylon belts ripped from their latches on the sides of the seat.

Phyllis Schlafly

Phyllis Schlafly was a women who was a conservative activist and supported antifeminism and antiabortion. She successfully campaigned and contributed against the ratification of the Equals Rights Amendment (ERA). Her book, "A Choice Not an Echo," was successful, selling more than 3 million copies. She was critical of the arms control agreement with the Soviet Union. She founded the Eagle Forum which is a conservative political interest group and was the CEO until she passed away recently in 2016.

Schlafly's Family Growing Up

Schlafly was born and grew up in St. Louis. Her father faced long term unemployment due to the Great Depression. What I find ironic is that it was really her mother who got a job and supported the family during the Great Depression. The reason why I find this ironic is because I would think that because of this, Schlafly would be for women getting higher pay, better job positions, etc, but she was antifeminist until the very end. She attended college and graduate school, and before she got married, she was a teacher at a private school in St. Louis.

Schlafly's Arguments

Schlafly was an outspoken member of the opposers to ERA and organized the "STOP ERA" Campaign. STOP stands for Stop Taking Our Priveledges because one of her most known arguments was that ERA was taking away priveledges that women already had. She argued that ERA would do this by taking away the "dependent wife" benefits under Social Security, the separate gender restrooms, and exemption from military drafting. The Homemakers' Equal Rights Association was formed under her campaign as well. She argued that the ERA would threaten the security of middle-aged housewives without job skills. Though her arguments weren't completely backed up, they really struck people upon first hearing them. Many people didn't question the validity of her arguments giving her lots of supporters.

The 50th anniversary of the 19th amendment.

Although not the first strike for women rights, August 26, 1970, represented a landmark day in which 50,000 feminists walked through New York City's 5th Avenue with linked arms and blocking off the rush hour. In fact, Time magazine in 2015 defines that day as "The Day Women Went on Strike."

The strike was sponsored by NOW -- The National Organization for Women. The Women's Strike for Equality March stemmed from Bety Friedan, who thought that the "action" was needed in order to set in powerful second-wave feminism. 

The impacts were tremendous.

The women’s movement was most successful in pushing for gender equality in workplaces and universities. The passage of Title IX in 1972 forbade sex discrimination in any educational program that received federal financial assistance.

Kathrine Switzer

Women were not able to participate in any sport that men were doing because they were seen as "less than" men and they weren't seen as powerful as men. But Kathrine Switzer was the first women to run the Boston Marathon. She snuck to be in the Marathon showing that she was not a male but later on in the race someone saw that she was a women and they immediately took her off, then her boyfriend that was way bigger than everyone that was pushing her away politely stopped them and pushed them. They allowed her to finished the race but she was not able to do this again.

Beach Boys

The Beach Boys were one of the most influential acts of the rock era.  They were distinguished by tight vocal harmonies, rarely heard from pop bands, and their early surf songs.  Their unique sound drew upon jazz music, 1950s rock and roll, and black R&B.  Their recordings incorporated classical elements and unconventional recording techniques as well.

The Beach Boys, an American rock band

The Beach Boys were formed in Hawthorne, California in 1961.  They originally consisted of the three Wilson brothers (Brian, Dennis, and Carl), their cousin Mike Love, and their friend Al Jardine.  The group was originally called the "Pendletones", after the popular Pendleton shirt of the time, but their first record label changed their name to the "Beach Boys" prior to the release of their first single.

The historical landmark marking where the Wilson family
home once stood in Hawthorne, California

The group's earliest songs celebrated surfing and the lifestyle it inspired in Southern California.  Their first single, "Surfin'", was a regional success for the West Coast, reaching #75 on the national Billboard Hot 100 chart.  It was so successful that the number of unpaid orders bankrupted Candix, their record label.

A record of the Beach Boy's first single,
"Surfin'"

Afterward, they signed a 7-year contract with Capitol Records.  With Capitol Records, they had a long run of highly successful recording efforts.  Their album "Surfin' USA" reached #2 on Billboard charts, propelling the group into the national spotlight and making surf music a national craze. 

The Beach Boys' album "Surfin' USA"

As surf music was slowly replaced by the British Invasion, the Beach Boys faced new competition in the form of the Beatles.  However, the Beach Boys proved the could compete when their song "I Get Around" became their first single to climb to #1.  They later released the album "Pet Sounds" and the single "Good Vibrations", both of which were well-received by the public.

"Pet Sounds", the Beach Boys' experimental
but successful album, released in 1966

The Beach Boys continued to produce music well after the 1960s, but they never achieved the same popularity as they had then.  The Beach Boys' success in the early 1960s reflected American culture during the time period.  The 1960s was a period of innovation in many areas.  It was an expression of the public's frustration with the government.  The Beach Boys' vocal approach to surf music and unique sound appealed to a public looking for something different, something new.  The Beach Boys' legacy as one of the greatest bands of all time still stands today.

The National Organization for Women

Founded in 1966 by a group of 28 women, and later 21 other men and women, the National Organization for Women was and continues to be a revolutionary organization demanding the sociopolitical equality of women. Previously, President Kennedy's Commission on the Status of Women was one of the first movements initiated by the executive branch in favor of this equality. Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique also sparked an enormous shift in the mindsets of women who read her book. She inspired women to stand up for what they felt they deserved and eloquently described the exact anger and impatience that they were feeling due to their oppression. Following the failure of The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, NOW was especially revolutionary, making their message even louder. This activism took an especially high peak as the Equal Rights Amendment was ratified, requiring all people to be treated equally under the law. All in all, the National Organization for Women continues to prevail as the foremost organization advocating for gender equality, combatting the issues that existed in the 20th century and those which have been addressed in the 21st.

Brown VS Board of Education

Until May 17, 1954, when the decision was made for the Brown VS Board of Education case, schools had to be segregated by law. This was because of the Plessy VS Ferguson case in 1896 that forced facilities to be separate but equal on the terms of race.

There were many lawsuits filed by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, or NAACP, but the class-action suit filed by Oliver Brown against the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas became the most famous. It was filed in 1951 when his daughter, Linda Brown, was stopped from entering Topeka’s all-white elementary schools.

Initially, it was decided that segregated schools created “a sense of inferiority” for minorities, however, were still separate but equal. When the case progressed, a justice stated, “in the field of public education the doctrine of ‘separate but equal’ has no place.”

While this statement and the overall verdict criminalized segregation, it was not automatically successful, as racial tensions were still present. In fact, most attempts made by black children to attend school were only made possible by executive deployment of the National Guard.

This movement marked a milestone in the Civil Rights Movement and fueled subsequent acts like the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the Fair Housing Act of 1968.

Unfortunately, even today, there are struggles to end racial inequalities in the public school system, especially when comparing wealthier neighborhoods to disadvantaged neighborhoods.

Jackie Robinson

Jackie Robinson (1919-1972) was the first African American baseball player in Major League Baseball. He was signed by the Brooklyn Dodgers and broke the baseball color line. He was incredibly successful winning the title Rookie of the Year and winning 6 consecutive All-Star seasons. Additionally, he won the National League Most Valued Player Award and contributed to the Dodger's win in the World Series. Robinson actually contributed to King's idea of fighting segregation with nonviolence by using his outstanding talent and effort to challenge segregation.

Jackie Robinson was born into a family of sharecroppers in Georgia. He grew up with 4 siblings while his mom worked many jobs to support the family. As he grew up, he was often excluded from recreational activities. When Robinson enrolled in high school, his talent for various sports became obvious and his siblings, Frank and Mack, inspired and pushed him on the athletic path where he played varsity for basketball, baseball, football, tennis, and track. As he attended college, he continued his passion for sports and he won the scholastic and citizenship record.

Despite his amazing skills, he still received a huge amount of insults and threats because of his race. This caused many to question the idea of "separate but equal." However, he never gave up and only fought harder and paved a way to the Civil Rights Movement. His success encouraged many more African Americans to join national baseball, football, etc leagues. Nine days before Robinson died, he said on television, "I'd like to live to see a black manager."

I Have A Dream

"I have a dream" by Martin Luther King Jr was focused on the freedom from Negroes. Martin Luther King Jr was important for this American voice on civil rights movement to fight for equal rights. Due to all this that he was fighting for he was killed a day after his speech at a motel.

Cuyahoga River, Ohio

The Cuyahoga River was one of the most polluted rivers in the United States. On June 1969 near the republic Steel milll, causing about $100,000 worth of damage to two railroad bridges. Fires were being caused on water because there was a lot of pollution from waste disposal. There was a fire in 1969 that helped spur action that lead to clean water. 

Cesar Chavez

Cesar Chavez was an American civil rights activist and a labor leader who, with Dolores Huerta, co-founded the NFWA (National Farm Workers Association, later the UFW the United Farm Workers union) in 1962.

Originally a Mexican American farm worker, Cesar Chavez became the best-known Latino American civil right activist and was strongly promoted by the American labor movement. Which was eager to enroll Hispanic members. His public relations approach to unionism and aggressive but nonviolent tactics made the farm workers’ struggle a moral cause with the nationwide support.

By late 1970s, his tactics had forced growers to recognize the UFW as the bargaining agent for 50,000 field workers in Florida and California.

The Consequences of DDT

Although DDT reached its peak in the 1960s, it was first produced by the US during WWII for use on its soldiers to get rid of head and body lice, as well as malaria and typhus. 

One effect:

When DDT began being produced in mass quantities, its effects were not noticed until they became very severe. The pesticide gradually accumulated in small prey, and due to "bio-cumulation" or the mass collection of nutrients from pray being absorbed into the fatty tissue of bigger animals, large creatures like whales and dolphins were harshly affected. The concentration of DDT built up in their fatty tissue was way beyond the levels of it in the outside environment.

Another effect:

There was also an issue with egg thinning, or the deterioration of the structure and integrity of eggs of some animals like birds, severely hurting their population.

DDT was a strong pesticide with a lengthy half-life, meaning that it lingered in the environment for a long time after it was applied. There were actually traces/effects of the chemicals that had spread all the way to the Arctic and Antarctic. This was because they were spread by air and water, largely enabling them to spread far and wide. Many parts of the world were DDT spread were not known about until its effects were too big. The use of DDT had not been monitored closely enough before it was too late.

Homosexuality and the American Psychiatric Association

Homosexuality in the DSM

        

        In the DSM - I, published in 1952, homosexuality was put under the category of "sociopathic personality disturbance;" the same category included pedophilia. Essentially, people who experienced sexual attraction to the same sex were not only said to be mentally ill, their "disorder" was considered, like pedophilia, to lead them to commit serious crimes, on par with sexually abusing children. Unfortunately, this means that homosexuality was, and would be for several more decades, considered a criminal offense.
        In the DSM - II, published in 1968, homosexuality was categorized as "sexual deviance," and while this may sound marginally better that the previous classification of "sociopathic personality disturbance," it was still highly stigmatized and homosexuality was still a crime, though perhaps not seen as quite as egregious.
        The DSM - II - R, 1973, removed homosexuality as a condition and replaced it with the diagnosis of "sexual orientation disturbance." Instead of homosexuality itself being seen as the issue, people's discomfort with their sexual orientation (basically, people who were gay/lesbian but uncomfortable with it) was the criteria for the diagnosis.
        The DSM - III, published in 1980, with work on it starting in 1974, included a condition called "ego-dystonic homosexuality," for which the criteria was essentially the same as for "sexual orientation disturbance" in the DSM - II - R.
        The DSM - III - R, published in 1987, still classified discomfort with one's sexual orientation under the diagnosis of "sexual disorder not otherwise specified," which still held some stigma. However, it is clearly a marked improvement from DSM - I, which classified homosexuality as a personality disturbance.
        Finally, the DSM - IV, published in 1994, contained no mention of homosexuality in its list of diagnoses. Many people would like to imagine that placing homosexuality in the category of "sexual deviance" is far in the past, but it was, in reality, barely sixty years ago.  

Berlin Airlift

The Berlin Airlift was one of the greatest aviation feats of the 20th century committed by the U.S., U.K., and French governments. Its beginnings started in post-WWII Germany, in which Germany was divvied up into four sections: UK, US, France, and USSR. Berlin, however, the capital of Germany and most important city in Germany, was located within USSR territory, so it too was divvied up into four separate regions between the four nation. As the Cold War progressed, however, the USSR attempted to blockade off the other three nations' land access to Berlin. This made it so West Berlin was incapable of receiving supplies, and they were in dire need of help from their respective nations. To avoid all-out war, the U.S., U.K., and France all began working together to fly in supplies in what is known as the Berlin Airlift. It began on June 24, 1948, when Germany began the blockade, and ended May 12, 1949, when Germany finally lifted the blockade. At its peak, the three countries were managing to lift in over 25,000 tons of necessary supplies. A point of notable interest was Colonel Gail Seymour "Hal" Halvorsen who was also known as the "Candy Bomber," for his dropping of tiny parachutes of candy on the German to raise morale. Watch this great animated video for more information!

The Feminine Mystique

Published in 1963, the Feminine Mystique, written by Betty Friedan, described a dissatisfaction of women after WWII. She states that after the men returned from the war, the women were excepted to return home. Women had fewer opportunities, less education, and limited career choices, which causes an unfulfilling feeling. This expectation inspired the feminine mystique. Society assumed women were supposed to do domestic work and nurture their children, and women had trouble formulating their unsatisfied feelings. 

Friedan interviewed women and used statistics to show the "emptiness" women feel by living up to ideal feminine behavior. The landmark book sparked the feminine movement and encouraged women to develop a new plan which allows them to choose when they want to marry when they want to have a baby and what work they want to do.

Delano Grape Strike

Delano Grape Strike

In 1965, Filipino and Mexican American farm workers walked out on a peaceful strike against wine grapes. They have received little pay and worked in poor conditions. They asked Caesar, the leader of the National Farm Workers Association to join their movement. Caesar hesitated at first but decided to join the strike on the account that they all have to work together, and they vowed to never use violence. The strike drew support from many activists, unions and civil right groups. The strike eventually turned into a boycott, including table grapes. The boycott went on for 2 years and many young men grew impatient. When Caesar saw that some people are turning towards violence, he decided to fast. His fast stopped the violence, and he received a letter of admiration from Dr. King. Caesar understood that perseverance was important, and the boycott went on for 5 years. The grape boycott was a success. The grape growings signed their first union contract, giving workers more pay, benefits and protection.

 

Dolores Huerta

Born in April of 1930 in New Mexico, Dolores Huerta was raised in a working family. Her father was a miner and farm worker and was very dedicated to political activism. He eventually won a seat in New Mexico legislature. Growing up in this environment, Huerta had early exposure to a life of activism and the demanding of rights. Following her parent's divorce, she moved to Stockton, California, a large farming community. Her mother was heavily invested in political activism there, advocating for the rights of the migrant workers. There were many migrant workers, many of whom were not yet citizens. This was used against them as their fear of being deported was manipulated by the farm owners who they worked for. They were given terrible working and living conditions and were treated abysmally by their bosses. At this point in her life, Dolores was in her 30s and co-founded the National Farm Workers Association with Cesar Chavez. Their combined efforts to create an active organization to get civil rights for the workers. They became political figures, working to elect politicians who had the interests of the people at heart. Their efforts revolutionized the Chicano Movement and the Workers' Movement and their efforts are remembered as legendary.

Project Blue Peacock: Chicken-powered Nuclear Mines

This is definitely one of the stranger things to come out of the Cold War. Yes, you read right. Chicken nukes, if you will.

WHY?!?!?!

In the late 50's and early 60's, the treat of Soviet invasion was a large worry for Western military planners. The 'best' place to invade was a valley called the Fulda Gap (pronounced fold-ah). The valley was difficult to access from the North and South, and went straight to plains that led the the Rhine. This would be one of the better invasion routes because it allowed a very quick route to the Rhine, and could outpace NATO counter-attacks. It also held a large US airbase, capable of retaliation if an attack was carried out elsewhere that would need to be captured in the first stages of a Soviet invasion.

The two possible Soviet attack routes. The upper one is the Fulda Gap.

So the smart minds over in the UK started working on a secret project to stop a Soviet attack and/or cause chaos after the fact. This was given the 'rainbow code' Blue, for a secret project, and called 'Peacock' because why not. It was a design for a nuclear landmine, to be detonated by 3-mile-long wire or 8-day timer in case of a Soviet attack. The device  would have a relatively small yield of 10 kilotons, less than the 15kt "Little Boy" bomb dropped on Hiroshima. It still would cause a sizable explosion and would produce far more fallout that 'Little Boy.' If armed, the anti-tampering devices would detonate the mine if the sealed capsule filled with water, and/or ten seconds after the capsule was moved. And when that happened ... Boom.

Chickens?

But there still was an issue. The nuclear device was of the implosion type, which required very careful (microsecond) timing to make a nuclear explosion. Buried underground in the middle of Germany, the device would get really cold. So cold that the sensitive electronics could stop working. They needed a way to generate enough heat to keep the electronics alive. There was no way to do it electrically, as the mine needed to be self-contained (nuclear bombs and unclear power stations are very different; the radioactive material in the bomb could not be used to generate power). So they decided to just stick a frickin' chicken in there on the electronics. The chicken would be sealed in the container, and was provided with 10 day's worth of food and water. So yeah. Chicken-powered nuclear bombs. 

The test device in the container, minus the chicken

The Case Against James Earl Ray

The murder of the Reverend Doctor Martin Luther King continues to be an open wound as the fight for civil rights and equality continues. The trial following his murder, by a white man by the name of James Earl Ray, and the history of the murderer, only further enraged those already mourning Dr. King's loss. Ray, a previously convicted criminal of multiple counts of robbery and armed battery escaped from prison twice. In his first escape, he made his way to Canada, where he claims to have met the shady man who instructed him how to kill Dr. King. To the day he died, he claimed that this shadowy man told him where to buy the rifle and exactly how to kill him, however, although he admitted to doing everything but shooting the rifle, he claims the rest was conducted by the Canadian. His trial continued to be a large controversy, especially after Dr. King's son visited Ray in jail and believed in his innocence. He then held a mock trial in which Ray was acquitted of murder, further confusing the situation. At the end of his life in 1998, Ray was living in a maximum security prison in the psychiatric ward, having been constantly repeating that he had not worked alone and that he was innocent in the physical murder of Dr. King.

MLK- I Have a Dream

Analysis:

The purpose of Martin Luther King’s speech, “I Have a Dream,” was to encourage the audience to stand up for what they believe by empowering them with hopeful messages about the future they want to achieve. He first appeals to the majority of his audience, African Americans, by pointing out the injustice that they face on a daily basis, “the Negro is still sadly crippled by the manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination.” Whenever he refers to the audience, he includes himself by repeating “we.” By putting himself into the same category as the audience and pointing out the injustices they face as a group, he gains the audience's attention because to them, it now seems like he truly understands their struggles and it gives him credibility. He even talks about specific people in the audience, “Some of you have come fresh from narrow jail cells. And some of you have come from areas where you quest -- quest for freedom left you battered by the storms of persecution and staggered by the winds of police brutality,” to make it seem like he is addressing each and every one of them. He appeals to pathos by bringing to the table the topic of children, he appeals to logos with the “bad check” analogy, and he appeals to ethos by quoting from the founding fathers. He uses all three rhetorical appeals to give reasons and to motivate the audience to speak up and fight for equality.
Furthermore, King makes sure to appeal to not only the African Americans in his audience; he even appeals to the whites who look towards the same future: “Many of our white brothers, as evidenced by their presence here today, have come to realize that their destiny is tied up with our destiny. [...] We cannot walk alone.” By addressing them, he acknowledges and thanks them for their decisions and support. By appealing to the audience as a whole, King is able to convince them to fight against racism and fight towards the type of future he dreams of.

MLK- Letter From Birmingham Jail

The Letter from Birmingham Jail was a letter written in April 1963 by Martin Luther King Junior after he was arrested for leading the March on Washinton for Jobs and Freedom. The clergymen had written a letter directed to King explaining why his arrest was justified and his actions weren't. King had written this letter as a response on little scraps of paper that he sent out and people pieced together.

Analysis:
When writing “Martin Luther King’s Letter from a Birmingham Jail,” Martin Luther King mainly takes into account who his audience is to respond to the public statement directed toward him and to build his argument. Because his direct audience, or who he is directly responding to, is the group of clergymen who wrote the public statement, he makes sure to write in a style suitable for them. First, because they are clergymen, he makes sure to include many Bible references. In 1960s America, the fundamentalist clergymen know that they cannot deny or disprove anything stated in the Bible. Hence, King alludes to statements in the Bible to make it harder to refute his arguments and for the clergymen to understand his arguments easilier. For example, after the clergymen call King an extremist, King references Jesus by saying, “Jesus Christ, was an extremist for love, truth and goodness.” Knowing that it is nearly impossible for the clergymen to speak against this point, he uses this statement, along with many other statements like this, to back up his actions (the march and his “I have a Dream” speech) and convey his credibility. Additionally, King doesn’t want the clergymen to misunderstand and think that King believes that he is higher than them, so he constantly asks for forgiveness if he is too harsh or if he sounds demeaning. However, King also doesn’t want the clergymen to think that King believes that he is lower than them, so he explicitly states that he is writing this as “a fellow clergyman and a Christian brother.” He does this to reinforce his belief that all men are created equal. By using these strategies that take the audience into account, King is able to convey is hope, that “racial prejudice will soon pass away and [...] the radiant stars of love and brotherhood will shine over.”

From Leading Civil Rights Movements to Serving In Congress | The Story Of John Robert Lewis

John Robert Lewis is an American politician and civil rights leader. He was born on February 21, 1940, near Troy, Alabama, U.S). Lewis was the son of Alabama sharecroppers. He attended segregated schools and was encouraged by his parents not to challenge the inequities of the Jim Crow South. As a teenager, he was inspired by the courageous defiance of Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr., to whose attention Lewis came when he indicated his desire to desegregate Troy State college (now Troy State University). Dissuaded from doing so by his parents, Lewis instead was educated in Nashville at the American Baptist Theological Institute and Fisk University (B.A in religion and philosophy, 1967).

There, Lewis undertook the study of nonviolent protest and became involved in sit-ins at lunch counters and other segregated public places. In 1961, while participating in the Freedom Rides that challenged the segregation of Southern interstate bus terminals, Lewis was beaten and arrested-experiences he would repeat often. In 1963, he was elected as the chairman of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee also known as SNCC. In his early 20s, Lewis was considered one of the “Big Six” leaders of groups who organized the 1963 March on Washington. Lewis played many key roles in the Civil Rights Movement and its actions to end legalized racial segregation in the United States.

He is now the U.S. Representative for Georgia’s 5th congressional district, serving in his 17th term in the House, having served since 1987, and is the senior member of the Georgia congressional delegation. Lewis is known for leading the march that was halted by police violence on the Edmund Pettus Bridge in Selma, Alabama, in 1965, a landmark event in the history of the civil rights movement that became known as “Bloody Sunday.” He was awarded the Martin Luther King Jr. Nonviolent Peace Prize in 1975, the John F. Kennedy Profile in Courage Award in 2001, and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People’s (NAACP) Spingarn Medal in 2002. In 2011 he received the Presidential Medal of Freedom. He also wrote several books and a graphic novel series called the March trilogy which was based on Lewis’s experiences in the civil rights movement.

Edsel

Edsel is an automobile marque from Ford Motor Company that was highly publicized as "the car of the future."  However, its 1957 unveiling received an adverse initial public reaction and Edsels never gained popularity.  Today, the name "Edsel" is a popular symbol for commercial failure.

A Ford Edsel, famed for its commercial flop

Ford chose September 4, 1957, as the debut date, dubbing it "E-Day".  In the year leading up to E-Day, Ford heavily invested in a teaser campaign for the new brand and new car.  The public was whipped into a frenzy by the teaser campaign, only to be let down by the final product.  They considered the Edsels to be unattractive and overpriced.

Additionally, many customers thought the Edsel looked ugly.  Ford designers chose to use a vertical grille to make the Edsel stand out, but the grille had to be enormous to keep the car running.  The car looked bad to both critics and consumers.  But Edsel's issues went beyond appearance.  Edsels were assembled in the same factories as the Mercury and Ford cars, and it was expected that the Ford and Mercury production would not drop.  Quality control for different Edsel models was not maintained - some Edsels even left the assembly lines unfinished.

Edsel's vertical grille was intended to make the car stand out
but was considered ugly by customers and critics

The Edsel started at $2500 and topped at $3800, far more expensive than other Ford models of the time.  Given that it debuted at the beginning of a recession, most customers weren't looking to purchase an expensive Ford.  Sales for most car manufacturers were down, even those that weren't introducing new models.  Edsel's problems were compounded by competition with well-established brands like Pontiac, Buick, and Oldsmobile.  

The Edsel was one of Ford's attempt to target the new consumer culture in America.  At release, they offered 19 different models (in a time where most car companies offered a few) to cater to a broad range of preferences.  However, a number of factors turned Edsel from the "car of the future" to the "Ford that flopped".

Upon release, Edsel was mocked for the grille that looked like a toilet seat.
Others said it looked like "an Oldsmobile sucking a lemon".

Ella Baker

 Ella Baker was an African American for civil rights and for the human rights activist. She was one of the most important one in the civil rights movement. She was very well known specially because she "worked alongside some of the most famous civil rights movements in the 20 centuries."

Ella Baker

Ella Josephine Baker was an African-American civil rights and human rights activist. She was a largely behind-the-scenes organizer whose career spanned more than five decades. She worked alongside some of the most famous civil rights leaders of the 20th century.

Ms. Baker played a key role in some of the most influential organizations of the time, including the NAACP, Martin Luther King's Southern Christian Leadership Conference, and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee.

Baker left the SCLC after the Greensboro sit-ins. She wanted to assist the new student activists because she viewed young, emerging activists as a resource and an asset to the movement. Ms Baker organized a meeting at Shaw University for the student leaders of the sit-ins in April 1960. From that meeting, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) was born.

A Quick Guide To: The R-7 Semyorka and Yuri Gagarin

The R-7
While we've talked a lot about how there was a 'missile gap' between the US, we haven't talked about what started the panic. That missile was the R-7 Semyorka. And even when compared to other big intercontinental missiles, it was huge. It stood 112 feet tall, and the central core was 10 feet in diameter.

The launch of Sputnik

Even though it was designed and built rather quickly, the R-7 had quite a few interesting design features. One of the main issues in early rocketry was stage separation. Once a booster is out of fuel, it's dead weight. Thus, spent stages needed to be ditched. The problem is that vertical stage separations were difficult and caused many launch failures in the Soviet program. What they decided to do was to separate the boosters horizontally. This is why there are four outer boosters around a central core on the R-7. The outer four would lift the rocket up to altitude, where they'd separate and leave the central core to carry on its nuclear journey. The separation also lead to one of the beautiful sights of rocketry: the "Korolev Cross."

The Korolev Cross of a modern Soyuz rocket, part of the R-7 family  

The second innovation was the use of vernier thrusters to steer the rocket. A lot of the contemporary US rockets of the time used thrust vectoring, where the nozzle of the engine could be rotated to steer the rocket. This worked very well, but added a huge amount of complexity to the rocket. The Soviets opted to use small rocket motors called vernier thrusters. You see how there are some big engines and a few tiny engines visible in the photo? The tiny ones are the verniers. These would turn on and off, providing thrust on only one side of the rocket to steer it. There were a couple issues with the design. The worst of these was the cryogenic (very cold) propellant. Basically, the fuel would boil and evaporate at room temperature. This meant that the missile had to be kept empty until just before launch. From first alarm to launch took twenty hours.As a strategic weapon, this sorta sucked. To put things into perspective, modern missiles take minutes, if not seconds, to confirm target and launch. 

The R-7 family is still in use today, almost 60 years later. It ferried Sputnik to orbit, and shot Yuri Gagarin to orbit. 

Yuri Gagarin

On April 12, 1961, a strange amount of activity was noticed at Baikanour Cosmodrome. A Vostok-K rocket (derivative of the R-7)  stood on the launch pad, partially shrouded in condensation from the liquid oxygen stored inside. There was a tense atmosphere in mission control as final checks were carried out. Television screens showed live video of the cargo: an astronaut by the name of Yuri Gagarin. Sergei Korolev, the chief designer, started having chest pains and was very worried at the statistics. 24 test launches had been carried out. Only 12 had succeeded. Strangely enough, Gagarin was perfectly calm in his capsule. 

At 6:07 Universal Time, the Vostok-K lifted off, Garagrin saying "Poyekhali!," "Let's go!" Ten minutes later the final engine shut off and the capsule separated from the rocket. The capsule drifted out of radio range, leaving Gagarin alone for a few minutes. About an hour later Gagarin turned the sun-seeking system on, orienting the capsule for re-entry. The retrorockets fired shortly after, nudging the spacecraft out of orbit. A command was sent up from mission control to separate the service module from the re-entry module (the one Gagarin was in). These failed to separate because of a stuck bundle of cables, leading to high g-forces over Egypt. The cables burned through, and the reentry module carried on through reentry.

 Once the capsule slowed down enough and stopped burning, parachutes were deployed. Automatically, at 23,000 feet, explosive bolts blew the hatch off, and two seconds later Gagarin's ejection seat fired, shooting him out of the spacecraft. He then had a "pleasant" ten-minute parachute ride down to the ground. A farmer and his daughter were near where Gagarin landed, and started to back away in fear (It's not every day a figure in a bright orange suit and white helmet parachutes from the sky. Gagarin told them "don't be afraid, I am a Soviet citizen like you, who has descended from space and I must find a telephone to call Moscow!"

The landing of a modern-day Soyuz capsule

A model of Gagarin's Vostok spacecraft